Document Type : Research Paper
Authors
1
Center for Asian Cultural Documentation, Institute for Humanities and Cultural Studies, Tehran, Iran
2
Department of History, Allameh Tabataba’i University, Tehran, Iran
Abstract
A B S T R A C T
Waqf, (Islamic endowment), as one of the enduring institutions in Islamic civilization, has played a significant role in organizing public spaces, providing municipal services, and strengthening neighborhood identity. The present study aims to examine the role of waqf as a spatial pattern in the development of Tehran, drawing on Christopher Alexander’s “A Pattern Language” theory, during the Qajar period (1210–1344 AH / 1795–1925 CE). This theory emphasizes the repeatability and sustainability of spatial patterns. According to this framework, Waqf can be analyzed through recurring urban nodes such as mosques, schools, bazaars, and public baths established as endowments. The research adopts a historical-analytical methodology, combining documentary analysis, library research, and quantitative data. To measure neighborhood development, an “urban development function” was designed, based on indicators such as the number of houses, shops, and bathhouses relative to population size. The study utilizes primary sources from the Qajar era, particularly Waqf deeds and historical maps. Findings indicate a significant positive correlation (over 70%) between the share of Waqf assets and the level of spatial development in the neighborhoods. Statistical and regression analyses, especially in the neighborhoods such as Bazaar, Oudlajan, and Sangalaj, confirm this relationship. The results underscore the necessity of rethinking the role of Waqf in contemporary urban planning and suggest that the institution of Waqf should be redefined in urban policy-making as a sustainable, responsive tool for spatial organization and neighborhood needs.
Extended Abstract
Introduction
Although the history of Tehran city has been examined extensively, the factors that influenced its physical development - particularly Waqf (Islamic endowment) - have received comparatively limited scholarly attention. Waqf, as a socio-religious institution in Islamic societies, has always been a key instrument for providing public services such as mosques, schools, bathhouses, and bazaars. The main question of this research concerns the role of Waqf in shaping the spatial organization of Tehran’s neighborhoods. To analyze this role, a theoretical framework is needed to identify the repetitive spatial and functional patterns of Waqf. Christopher Alexander's “Pattern Language” theory, with its emphasis on the sustainability and repeatability of physical patterns, provides a suitable basis for analyzing Waqf as a spatial-social institution. This study investigates the impact of Waqf on the morphology and spatial expansion of Tehran from the Safavid period to the end of the Qajar era.
The primary focus of the research is on the Qajar period (1210–1344 AH) because the availability of statistical sources and comprehensive maps allows for a more precise analysis of the relationship between Waqf and spatial development. During this period, policies such as the construction of the Sepahsalar School and Waqf bazaars by Naser al-Din Shah led to the creation of new socio-economic centers in the neighborhoods. Despite previous studies in the field of Waqf and Tehran's history, they have often focused on descriptive and socio-economic aspects, neglecting the spatial dimension and coherent theoretical analysis. Research in other Islamic cities has indicated that Waqf plays an organizing role in urban spaces, but in studies related to Tehran, examining Waqf as a “repetitive spatial pattern” has been overlooked, and the “Pattern Language” framework has not been used. Therefore, the innovation of this article lies in presenting a theoretical framework that, for the first time, analyzes Waqf in Qajar-era Tehran as a repetitive and modelling spatial pattern and, by designing a quantitative model “Urban Development Function”, quantifies the impact of Waqf on the spatial growth of neighborhoods.
Methodology
In jurisprudential terms, Waqf refers to the preservation of the principal asset while dedicating its usufruct to a designated purpose. From a legal perspective, Waqf is a unique ownership system that transforms property into public-religious ownership and removes it from the cycle of commerce. From an economic perspective, it was a sustainable financing mechanism for public services in the absence of modern urban institutions. These two specific perspectives turned Waqf into an effective institution in the spatial organization of cities. The permanence of ownership and guaranteed service provision created conditions where endowments became established as repetitive and stable nodes in the urban fabric. Christopher Alexander’s “Pattern Language” theory is a holistic approach to urban design based on the principle that every recurring spatial problem has a recurring solution. Patterns such as social nodes, neighborhood centers, and convergent public spaces play a key role in the spatial organization of cities. Within the framework of Islamic cities, Waqf aligns well with Alexander's “living patterns”. Elements such as mosques, schools, and Waqf bazaars have been repeated numerous times in the urban fabric, acting as nuclei for formation and service provision; For example, complexes like the Marvi Mosque-School or Sepahsalar were patterns for creating “Waqf neighborhood centers” that correspond to Alexander's “Local Town Hall” pattern. Although the Pattern Language theory is based on Western urban experience and does not address institutions like Waqf, in this research, it has been localized through three methods: 1. Redefining endowments as “Waqf nodes” similar to local patterns; 2. Adding the legal-economic dimension of Waqf to the theoretical framework, so that the permanence of ownership and continuity of service are considered part of the logic of pattern repeatability; 3. Using the historical experience of Tehran as an example of “living patterns” adaptable over time.
The study adopts a historical-analytical methodology. Data were extracted from endowment documents at the National Library, the collection of endowment deeds by Rezaei (2007), and historical maps such as the map by Najm al-Dowleh (1275 AH). This data included the number of shops, bathhouses, schools, and mosques under Waqf in Tehran's neighborhoods. The data were coded using SPSS software and analyzed with linear regression and Pearson correlation tests. The unit of analysis was Tehran's neighborhoods. The methodological innovation was the designing and utilizing an “Urban Development Function” to quantify the effect of Waqf. This function was defined as f = ax + by + cz, where x, y, and z are the number of houses, shops, and bathhouses, respectively, and the coefficients a, b, and c were calculated based on the ratio of each element to the neighborhood population in the base year (1269 AH). To calculate the share of Waqf, only Waqf buildings were substituted into the function instead of all buildings. The function value for each neighborhood and the entire city was calculated and normalized for the years 1269 and 1317 AH. Then, the difference in the share of Waqf and in development for each neighborhood between these two years were obtained, and their relationship was measured using linear regression.
Results and Discussion
The initial core of Tehran was a small village whose first urban transformations began in the Safavid period with the actions of Shah Tahmasb. He ordered the construction of walls and fortifications, and the endowments of his sister, Fatemeh Soltan Begum, including a bathhouse, Tekyeh, and school in the Chal-Meydan neighborhood, were among the first significant structures of the city. The oldest existing endowment deeds in Tehran belong to the Safavid period, indicating the early role of Waqf in the physical formation of the city. During the Qajar period, the selection of Tehran as the capital amplified the prominence of Waqf. During the reign of Fath-Ali Shah, alongside population growth, the number of endowments increased. The Marvi endowment complex (Marvi Mosque-School), built in 1231 AH in the west of the Oudlajan neighborhood, was one of the most notable legacies of this period, playing an important role in transferring the center of religious scholarship from Isfahan to Tehran. The reign of Naser al-Din Shah (1264–1313 AH) marked the peak of Waqf's influence on Tehran's spatial development. In this period, 309 endowment deeds were registered. Actions such as the endowment of the Sadr Abad and Kazem Abad Qanats by Agha Khan Nuri for public free use helped develop lands along the Qanat routes. The construction of two Sepahsalar Mosque-Schools (especially by Mirza Mohammad Khan Sepahsalar in 1283 AH) gave prestige to its surrounding area in the Dowlat neighborhood and drew significant buildings such as the National Consultative Assembly. The construction of the Waqf water reservoir of Seyed Esmail in 1261 AH, which was previously a garbage dump and cemetery, led to the formation of the Seyed Esmail bazaar alley and the creation of a religious-economic pole. Other centrality-creating endowments of this period included the Memarbashi, Fathieh, and Khazen al-Molk mosque-schools. The expansion of the city and population growth eventually led to the demolition of the Safavid walls and the construction of the new Nasseri wall in 1284 AH, with a perimeter four times larger.
While Waqf practices persisted through the reigns of Mozaffar al-Din Shah, Mohammad Ali Shah, and Ahmad Shah, the Nasseri period represented the zenith of its influence. Important endowments of these later periods included the Charity School for Orphans and the Feylsoof al-Dowleh Mosque-School. The massive Waqf complex of Sepahsalar during Ahmad Shah's reign, with the choice of Baharestan for the parliament, contributed to the formation of a powerful political center. Statistical data from the Dar al-Khalafeh of Tehran in the years 1269 and 1317 AH enabled quantitative comparison. In 1269 AH, Tehran had 78,872 houses, 4,220 shops, 112 mosques, 19 schools, and 153 public bathhouses. By 1317 AH, the population increased from about 126,000 to 244,400, and the number of houses reached 15,275, shops 9,420, and bathhouses 182. Quantitative analysis using the Urban Development Function and linear regression demonstrated a significant positive relationship between the share of Waqf and the level of spatial development of neighborhoods. The regression model explains approximately 70% (coefficient of determination R² ≈ 0.71) of the variation in neighborhood development with the variable of Waqf share. Neighborhoods with a higher density of Waqf nodes (such as the Bazaar and Oudlajan) had a higher level of spatial development. For example, in the Bazaar neighborhood in 1269 AH, the existence of 151 Waqf shops, 8 caravanserais, and 4 Waqf bathhouses had created a dense network of socio-economic functions. A key finding showed that neighborhoods with faster growth owed a larger share of their development to Waqf.
The findings confirm the hypothesis of Waqf as a spatial development factor. By creating stable service nodes (mosque, school, bazaar, bathhouse), Waqf shaped the social and physical organizational core of neighborhoods and guided development around itself. In a critical analysis, the Pattern Language theory was compared with two competing approaches:
1. Urban Network Theory: Emphasizes the dynamic interaction and flows between functional nodes and sees Waqf as a node within a network. This theory focuses more on interactions than on fixed physical form.
2. Institutional Economics Theory: Views Waqf as a legal-economic institution that facilitates development by reducing transaction costs and increasing trust. This perspective emphasizes institutional and motivational functions.
The Pattern Language theory, by concentration on repeatable spatial templates, has limitations in fully explaining the institutional and network dimensions of development. Therefore, for a more comprehensive understanding of Waqf's role, integrating it with network and institutional theories in future studies is suggested.
Conclusion
The results indicate that there was a significant positive relationship between the volume and distribution of endowments and the level of spatial development in Tehran’s neighborhoods during the Qajar period. Waqf, by acting as a repetitive and stable spatial pattern, not only provided public services but also played a key role in shaping the urban structure, creating focal nodes, and strengthening neighborhood identity. Neighborhoods with a higher density of endowments enjoyed better spatial organization and access to services. On a practical level, the findings indicate the potential of the Waqf model for contemporary urban policy-making towards sustainable development and spatial balance. Following measures should be considered including creating Waqf service spaces in underprivileged neighborhoods, reviving abandoned endowments, formulating facilitating regulations, and incorporating the role of Waqf into urban planning analyses. This requires specific institutional cooperation, particularly between the municipality and the Endowment Organization.
This study is restricted to the time frame of 1269-1317 AH in Tehran and relies on available historical data, not covering all socio-cultural dimensions of development. Generalizing the results to other historical cities in Iran and the Islamic world requires more case studies. It is suggested that forthcoming studies undertake comparative analysis of Waqf patterns in cities such as Isfahan and Shiraz, and utilize spatial analysis tools (GIS) and complementary theoretical approaches (network and institutional) for a more multidimensional understanding of this influential institution.
Funding
There is no funding support.
Authors’ Contribution
Authors contributed equally to the conceptualization and writing of the article. All of the authors approved thecontent of the manuscript and agreed on all aspects of the work declaration of competing interest none.
Conflict of Interest
Authors declared no conflict of interest.
Acknowledgments
We are grateful to all the scientific consultants of this paper.
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